This study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the position of divine fear (khawf) within Imam Muḥammad al-Ghazālī's theological and spiritual system and analyzes it in light of Rudolf Otto's theory of the numinous experience. It first explains the theological functions of khawf in al-Ghazālī's intellectual framework and then investigates its relationship with Otto's conception of the numinous, particularly through the notions of awe and fascination. The analysis demonstrates that, in al-Ghazālī's thought, khawf transcends the level of ordinary moral fear or a merely psychological reaction. Rather, it constitutes an existential and epistemic state arising from the perception of God's infinite majesty and glory, leading the believer toward vigilance, repentance, and divine love. By contrast, Otto interprets awe as the primary human response to an encounter with the sacred, an experience characterized simultaneously by mysterious dread and irresistible attraction. The findings indicate that Otto's theory provides a useful conceptual framework for understanding the experience of khawf in Islamic mysticism, since, in al-Ghazālī's mystical theology, khawf represents the concrete manifestation of awe that transcends theoretical cognition and becomes an existential and transformative experience along the spiritual path.
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habibi, H., shamohammadi, R. & khayatian, G. (2026). Functions of Divine Fear in al-Ghazālī's Theology With Special Reference to Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn and a Brief Comparison with Rudolf Otto's Thought. Essays in Philosophy and Kalam, 58(1), 103–130. https://doi.org/10.22067/epk.2025.95310.1479
MLA
habibi, H., shamohammadi, R., & khayatian, G. "Functions of Divine Fear in al-Ghazālī's Theology With Special Reference to Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn and a Brief Comparison with Rudolf Otto's Thought", Essays in Philosophy and Kalam, 58, 1, 2026, 103–130. doi: 10.22067/epk.2025.95310.1479
HARVARD
habibi, H., shamohammadi, R., & khayatian, G. (2026). 'Functions of Divine Fear in al-Ghazālī's Theology With Special Reference to Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn and a Brief Comparison with Rudolf Otto's Thought', Essays in Philosophy and Kalam, 58(1), pp. 103–130. doi: 10.22067/epk.2025.95310.1479
CHICAGO
habibi, H., shamohammadi, R. & khayatian, G., "Functions of Divine Fear in al-Ghazālī's Theology With Special Reference to Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn and a Brief Comparison with Rudolf Otto's Thought." Essays in Philosophy and Kalam, 58 1 (2026): 103–130, doi: 10.22067/epk.2025.95310.1479
VANCOUVER
habibi H., shamohammadi R., khayatian G. Functions of Divine Fear in al-Ghazālī's Theology With Special Reference to Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn and a Brief Comparison with Rudolf Otto's Thought. Essays in Philosophy and Kalam. 2026;58(1):103–130 (In Persian). doi: 10.22067/epk.2025.95310.1479
